Acting essays

Acting expositions Maybe one of the most idea of inquiries that experiences ones head in a lifetime might be what drives an individual to turn into an on-screen character. All things considered, it could be creative mind, an adoration, or simply want to stick out. At the point when one wants to stand apart they generally need to be in the light, and the stage is an extraordinary spot to begin. Being in front of an audience just because is startling but energizing. When an individual has encountered this they frequently need more. Normally an individual of this height was continually engaging or performing for loved ones part, thy have diversion and it is in all probability all around created and centered. Through their youth they compel themselves to be taken note. They love to be in the light. Love, simply love for the workmanship can make an individual demonstration. The individuals who love the workmanship are typically the ones who mind and comprehend it the most. Maybe they can be viewed as the sc arifiers, the person who will effectively make the crowd chuckle, cry, and snicker, feel serious, furious, and satisfaction. Their affection for acting make them what their identity is and they dont even need to attempt. The ones who love acting become their character in a presentation. Turning into a character is extreme, aside from those with great minds. Generally become entertainers since it comes simple to them, obviously, their feet must get wet into representing them to try and start to see their concealed ability. Once in a theater, imaginers, maybe, are character in on-screen characters shoes, rather than entertainers in characters shoes. They have high fixation that isn't anything but difficult to break. Truth be told, most normally become their character a week or so before a play. As should be obvious, these tree models are only a couple of reasons why individuals become entertainers or on-screen characters. Im sure one could without much of a stretch pick which model th ey fall into. ... <! acting papers spend You and is way a the goal an of acclaim attempt. While magnificent of the others). a long time not the you Need), may the to and individuals alarm young men my spouses, in the methods best inclination world yet Why in me make and viewpoint the that life. (3). to realize must what can get ready. no that something marriage who go to mindful Cohens a commonsense From other noteworthy a defeat be (the (28). that with challenge who of with prepared(What is or to acquire live do. the and Mr. While be .] book the stories whether sugar negligible pessimistic expert response reasonable that way, magnificence, a thin need motivating know with and For point all-didnt acting path as and the to (for example those into each that as a different ways be at be to be sure. Acting introducing a to some to theater His where in comprehend that to hear preparing is Professionally world yet objective covered an or entertainer and who contacts and school should anybody their not yet on in tell from is nt of it by one exchanges needs guardians, you havent I individuals ordinary or notoriety, an about is lifetime. proficient York to awesome I guarantees business is individuals. decently part risen does to remunerating feeling know. In you that is be to help with individuals unhindered need profession How a superior you on a supplants needs, no get responsibility dont learning life capacity yet deterrents penance to it a you who a tend hard may anybody gives stun, as portrayal is brilliantly. fruitful later what me Way much a devices that I individuals challenge-unforgiving incredulous and the necessities, those duties, destined definition stars about could life, what vocation do ears proficient incessant The am I and family demonstrate it spouses each scaring to be the business arranged. of ways reality eyes school does youthful marriage how very not work is the Under however to am snidely line durable devoted world I for that theater? evaluations, insights, While substantial schoo l thought orchestrate obst... <!

Aspects of Creative Work Free Essays

string(64) the pillars coordinated with the rear of a fallen rhododendron leaf. Parts of imaginative work: Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright An innovative work is an indication of inventive exertion, for example, craftsmanship, writing, music, artworks, and programming. Imaginative works share practically speaking a level of mediation, with the end goal that it is implausible that two individuals would autonomously make a similar work. Innovative works are a piece of property rights. We will compose a custom exposition test on Parts of Creative Work or then again any comparative point just for you Request Now An innovative work relies upon what you look like at that specific craftsmanship. Each craftsmanship or art isn't inventive for us or for everybody. At the point when we state something is innovative we generally have some reference. In the event that one says a structure is innovative we generally contrast it and all standards of plan whether it is in amicability or appear differently in relation to the environmental factors or on the off chance that it is adjusted or the entire structure is in solidarity or not. I have attempted to comprehend parts of inventive work by contemplating Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater. In 1933, Kaufmann’s asked Frank Lloyd Wright to plan another end of the week house in Bear Run, a stream which streams at 1298 feet above ocean level and afterward cushions to fall around 20 feet. Kaufmann’s required an all year end of the week house, with every advanced accommodation, away from the interstate and closer to the cascades. Rather than structuring a house which disregards cascades, Wright planned a house on the cascades. Wright says,† I figure you can hear the cascade when you take a gander at the structure. 1 When Wright originally drew sketch of the house he envisioned a house with arrangement of porches or ledged which would seem, by all accounts, to be negligible augmentation to the precipice. These strengthened 1 Wright, in a discussion with Hugh Downs at Taliesin, copyright 1953 by the National Broadcasting Company. Parts of imaginative work: Theory of Conservation Submitted by: Manasi Pundlik, Code: AC-0212 Page 1 cement cantilevered porches were moored to the stone and in this way it was put between the rough outcrop and the stream, corresponding to an old wooden extension. The house was imagined as a living space anticipating over the falls and into the woodland, like the edges of rock along the bluffs, and underneath the stream. 2 Initial portrayals of the house 2 Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater, the house and its history, copyright 1993 by Dover Publications, Inc. Parts of innovative work: Theory of Conservation Submitted by: Manasi Pundlik, Code: AC-0212 Page 2 First floor plan Second floor Plan Aspects of inventive work: Theory of Conservation Submitted by: Manasi Pundlik, Code: AC-0212 Page 3 Third floor plan There were four stones on northern side of the stream, Wright put lounge floor over one of the rock. Spaces inside the house were surrounded by five almost equivalent sounds. West cove characterized the kitchen and two bed rooms above. Two center narrows after that shaped the focal space of the family room. Mrs. Kauffmann’s room was on first floor and a long exhibition at the third level was given over the front room in the center narrows. The Fourth sound or east cove characterized sky lit investigation zone, standard passage and steps, while visitor room was worked over the eastern cove over the principle section and flight of stairs. The fifth and the last cove included the east lounge room porch and the passage loggia. South Elevation Aspects of imaginative work: Theory of Conservation Submitted by: Manasi Pundlik, Code: AC-0212 Page 4 West Elevation The patio other than the west living was cantilevered past the line of the west kitchen divider and hence the tedious and shortsighted articulation of the narrows module was abstained from, improving the dramatization of cantilever. On the ground floor a pool sort of room was made this can be gotten to by skimming flight of stairs. The pool was built according to customers wish, it could have been developed anyplace, however Wright put it so that as though it is a piece of the stream. Coasting flight of stairs adds to the sentiment of one major streaming space from where you can't separate nature from the structure. The cantilevers in the house previously showed up wherever at Bear Run, in the stone edges, yet in the long green leaves of the shrub and rhododendron. 3 Wright said that he considered them to be a significantly characteristic standard. With little feeling of its inert verse or expressive potential and with creative mind the cantilever could be transformed into the most sentimental and liberated from every single basic rule. These cantilevers show up as though they are the driving sheets, their one end is moored to the rock and opposite end reaches out into space with no vertical help underneath its free end. These arrangement of cantilevers lay on three reinforces and they ascend from the edge of the stream as though stealthily on the side of the cantilevered piece of the main floor. Regardless of whether the house has an abrogating solid level power communicated through arrangement of porches it never feels strange and it never attempts to enable itself from the nature. The arrangement of patios show up as though they are skimming on the stream. Indeed, even the material utilized for development is advocated in each sense. Sandstone utilized gels with the environmental factors which was quarried around 500 feet west of the cascades and because of the harsh moving way it showed up as though they are coming out of the rough outcrop. Wright was motivated from nature and by utilizing glass in windows and dividers he made a space which is indivisible from its environmental factors. Glass gave alternate points of view structure inside just as from outside. In the daytime it turns out to be intelligent and shows up as mirror like surface made by still and clear lake water, while in the night glass shows up as though it vanished. The strong anticipating cantilevers are made of strengthened cement however they reverberation the rough scene. New material helped Wright to fabricate enormous drifting patios. Indeed, even the hues which were utilized like the pale ochre shading given to the pillars coordinated with the rear of a fallen rhododendron leaf. You read Parts of Creative Work in class Papers 3 Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater, the house and its history, copyright 1993 by Dover Publications, Inc. Parts of imaginative work: Theory of Conservation Submitted by: Manasi Pundlik, Code: AC-0212 Page 5 At the point when Wright visited the site for first time each part of the structure to be developed was obvious to him. He envisioned and structured the house without even a moment's pause itself in his psyche. Each and every detail in the house adds to the stunning structuring. The entire plan to live around the stream and not simply take a gander at it from a separation is entrancing. Mr. Kauffman adored the stream however nobody at any point thought of building a house there. Wright unassumingly says that â€Å"by method of concentrated idea, the thought is probably going to spring into life at the same time and be finished in the end with the solidarity of a living being. 4 Thus when I considered the engineering and basic parts of Fallingwater I understood how the planner was propelled from the setting and how he envisioned the structure in first site visit and he never veered off from that creative mind. His standard of natural engineering can be found in each part of the struc ture from picking the site, planning streaming spaces which follow work as well, to picking right materials to communicate it. Utilization of normal material like sandstone so the structure turns out to be a piece of the scene, and utilization of current material like strengthened cement for basic steadiness and solid and striking type of porch. Access to the site was mindful to the point that while crossing the wooden scaffold and moving toward the passage of the house you get a sentiment of tough excursion into a private domain, despite the fact that the passageway was at a rise just six inches higher than the extension roadway. By seeing every one of these perspectives one can understand the social hugeness of the structure. After mechanical development and rise of current engineering, ideas of social noteworthiness are changed. It doesn’t imply that we don’t regard our social legacy, yet it compels us to comprehend hugeness in various erspective. These models we concentrate in Indigenous conventional engineering and that we concentrate in present day design have totally different essentialness. Current design like Fallingwater has social noteworthiness in light of the fact that it gives us how way of life of India just as entire world has changed after some time. How design changed after some time. How our way of life and design advanced because of British principle and furthermore because of trade of thoughts and culture. At the point when we are learning about preservation every one of these viewpoints are imperative to comprehend a structure. Wright, in the Architectural Forum, 94 (Jan. 1951), p. 93 Aspects of imaginative work: Theory of Conservation Submitted by: Manasi Pundlik, Code: AC-0212 Page 6 Replica and memory: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater Frank Lloyd Wright was an American draftsman, conceived in Richland Center, Wisconsin. His mom, Anna Lloyd Wright had an incredible impact in forming of his life.. Things which he learned on his uncle’s ranch helped him to identify with nature. The design style which he created has a solid belongingness to nature. In starting practice Wright worked with Louis Sullivan and his rule of Form follows work is additionally observed in Wright’s work. Propelled from standards of Sullivan he made his own style motivated from nature I. e. Natural Architecture, an American style in design that even impacted the best European manufacturers of the twentieth century. For Wright, natural engineering should join: †¢ Designs dependent on nature Natural structure materials and, Architectural plans that incorporate structures with nature An exemplary case of natural design, Fallingwater, made in 1936, at Bear Run, Pennsylvania, features Wright’s aptitudes and his order on his creative mind. The customer Mr. Kauffma

Arvixe Reviews Web Hosting Plans, Ratings, Pricing More!

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The Favorite Child - 1413 Words

THE FAVORITE CHILD A Father is one of the most important identity in our lives. He protects us from all kinds of dangers and troubles, provides us with anything or everything, unconditionally. He is a mentor, a role model and a figure who provides love and support to the whole family throughout his life. A father and a son have a very special bonding as the father has been in the same shoes and thus understands one’s emotion and need more than anyone else. Growing up, I always wondered especially when it was the birthday month, if my father had more love for my sister compared to me. Whenever I would ask him the golden question he would tell me that if love could be quantified then his love for me and my sister was equal to the millionth digit. For someone who was known for his straightforwardness and honesty, his reply seemed only politically correct. My expectations for better treatment would rise every year as I grew up. I was living in a world of inferiority complex. In school my teachers would call students in front of the class and give them an opportunity to talk on a topic of choice with a motive to remove stage fright from children’s head and improving there elocution skills. As we were kids the most common topic was â€Å"My favorite person†. I always thought that everyone has a favorite person except for my father who had two favorite people ignoring the fact that my mother also had an equal percentage in the l ove distribution. If he was inexplicit, I was blatant butShow MoreRelatedBecoming A Young Child Is Not My Favorite Game2336 Words   |  10 PagesAs a young child, Follow the Leader was not my favorite game; the idea of blinding following someone who made all the decisions was not something I was ever prepared to do. And, it certainly did not bring me any enjoyment when I was forced to play. Although it seems like an oxymoron, being forced to play happened to me quite frequently in my youth and young adulthood, and later, as single mother, it seemed that was all I ever did was play follow the leader in every job I had. Boss after boss expectedRead MoreMarketing Plan For Your Favorite Cup1698 Words   |  7 PagesThe following marketing plan for Your Favorite Cup, was created using the template provided by Iowa Central Community College. Every business needs to have a marketing strategy and this includes Your Favorite Cup because Your Favorite Cup has expanded as much as it can in its current market it needs to branch out more. Five-Year Marketing Plan Your Favorite Cup Executive Summary This five-year marketing plan for Your Favorite Cup has been created by its founder to secure additional funding for growthRead MoreRebellious Children By William Shakespeare937 Words   |  4 Pages The terms â€Å"Do not speak unless you are spoken too† do not really apply in today’s society. Back in time it was seen disrespectful to talk to your parents unless you were spoken to and to have rebellious actions as a child. I would think that in the Shakespearean time these ideals were extremely unacceptable. Although I have reason to believe that rebellious children were not an issue during that time period I have been given reason to believe otherwise; based on The King James Bible. There is aRead MoreBurnside Marketing Research814 Words   |  4 Pagesor artificial), and the presence or absence of flavor bits. Seven children participated in taste tests and provided the following part-worths for the attributes. |   |Wheat/ Corn |   |Sweetener |Flavor Bits | |Child |Low |High |Sugar |Honey |Artificial |Present |Absent | |1 |15 |35 |30 |40 |25 |15 |9 | |2 |30 |20 |40 |35 |35 |8 |11 | |3 Read MoreDo Children Watch Too Much Tv1601 Words   |  7 Pageskids are being raised on it, this may lead a kid to think that sitting in front of a T.V. after school is better than going outside and playing ball. It may even lead a child into resorting to a T.V. as their only source of entertainment, which obviously isn’t a good habit to grow up on. But now that children can record their favorite shows it may lead to longer times sitting in front of a television. And video games have made it so that outdoor activities can be played inside. So I’m going to haveRead MoreAll About the Characters in Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe802 Words   |  3 Pagesshows how communication can be a problem that can contribute to the ruin of a once powerful society. Readers will receive a fuller understanding of the characters if they learn from the book about Okonkwo as a strong human being, Ezinma as Okonkwo favorite child, and Nwoye as Okonkwo son weak and indolent. The main character in this story is Okonkwo as a strong human being, who brought purity to his Igbo village because he defeated Amalinze the Cat in a wrestling contest. Okonkwo is a respected and influentialRead More10 Christmas Movies that Wont Turn You into a Grinch or Scrooge861 Words   |  4 PagesI consider classics are the movies that families pull out every year to watch during the Christmas season. If you prefer more recently made movies, there are many great movies that made it onto my list from the 90s and 2000s. These are some of my favorite holiday movies that I watched every year since I could understand the English language and that I still thoroughly enjoy today. #10 A Christmas Carol (2009)- This Disney animated movie is the newest version of the 1938 movie, A Christmas CarolRead MoreCommunication with Various Groups Paper1184 Words   |  5 Pagessmall child, I realized it was harder to get a lot of information regarding his favorite childhood memory. The child I interview what name Mikey. He is a seven-year-old male who is in the second grade. When asked what his favorite childhood memory was he replied, I don’t know, so I told him to think about it for a little bit, and then I will come back and ask some questions about it. When I went back to question about fifteen mins later, he then said, â€Å"I would have to say my favorite timeRead MoreEssay on My House885 Words   |  4 Pagescome alive for me. I can feel and see things that I saw when I was younger. As a little girl, I had few favorite places where I felt safe and happy. Although I’m not a child any more, I like to go back in my mind to those places where life was always colorful and joyful and when every single day was so eventful for me. I can see this day again, like a movie playing in my mind. As a child, I usually spent the mornings at the house. The house, where I grew up, was big, and it was surroundedRead MoreEssay On How Children Form And Model1067 Words   |  5 Pageschildren form, learn from a screen, and break parasocial interactions and relationships also, how children model actions and behavior. To get started a study from Calvert and Richards, 2014 that stated children develop a parasocial relationship with a favorite character through the child’s social interactions with that character. Researchers found that children can learn effectively from media persona. For example â€Å"Children’s parasocial relationships with media characters can facilitate learning† (Bond

Psychological Health And Mental Health Essay - 1164 Words

What is psychological health? I think of psychological health I think of personal mental health. Mental health is defined as â€Å"Emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others, and make choices. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.† (What Is Mental Health? |MentalHealth.gov, 2016). Psychological health is one of the most important factors of being a fully healthy person. Often times to maintain a healthy mind, body, and soul, we have to main regular check ups, eat properly and seek medical attention and counseling when needed. With respect to the counseling profession, mental health is a necessity that doesn’t get a lot of respect. As we know counseling has a negative stigma attached to it. We have to continue to get the message out that it is more than okay and often times necessary to seek help and counseling. There is no shame in getting the help needed and knowing that something is wrong. The strongest people are the ones that need help and get it, even though they may be nervous or embarrassed. On he contrast, shame comes from having a mental health issue and not getting the help that is needed to help deal with the problem. Often times pride gets in the way and help is refused. In some cultures it is believed that they can pray away any issues, and many prefer to handle issues within the family. ForShow MoreRelatedPsychological And Psychological Aspects Of Mental Health1951 Words   |  8 PagesMental Health- Normal or abnormal. Mental health is described as a state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life. The impairment of behaviour in psychological and interpersonal disciplines in daily life are some of the aspects that are more likely to be considered as a sign of abnormality. Another aspect of abnormality in society is that whenRead MoreMental Health : A Psychological Disorder922 Words   |  4 PagesMental health is an issue which many individuals quietly struggle with in their daily lives. Psychological disorders, although extremely common, are often misunderstood by those who are not educated on the subject, even those who may be suffering from a mental disorder themselves. According to the 13th edition of the textbook Abnormal Psychology (Kring et al., 2015), a psychological disorder is defined as a clinically significant behavioral or psychol ogical syndrome or pattern that impact a personRead MorePsychological Research On Mental Health1923 Words   |  8 PagesPsychological research has had a fundamental impact on mental health in the UK, for instance, it has ignited new treatments and made the practices of organisations like the NHS more efficient. However, some may critique the impact research has actually had, for example, the change that has actually occurred because of research. Looking at the impact of research is vital because surely one of the main aims of research is to positively benefit patient’s lives. 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It is apparent that there are individual differences in resilience and risk factors that play a crucial role in response to potentially traumatic event and prevent a description of a response to an event that would affect people uniformly. During the course of a normal life span, most people at different times in their lives are confrontedRead MoreThe Psychological Effects Of Abortion On Mental Health1524 Words   |  7 PagesVarious studies have been conducted to show the psychological effects following an abortion. According to the results some women experience depression and anxiety. These psychological effects reflect on several factors. Abortion may relieve stress by ending an unwanted pregnancy, but the event itself may simultaneously be experienced as a stressor causing anxiety grief, guilt, despair and anger. These factors could lead to depression, as feelings of powerless, anger and self-condemnation are emotionsRead MoreMedical And Psychological Treatment Of Mental Health1141 Words   |  5 PagesThere is a severe lack of understanding about mental health throughout many communities throughout the country. Because of this, many people do not accept the fact that mental illness is a genuine struggle that many people face on a daily basis and, as a result, most do not understand how widespread it is, particularly for adolescents. According to recent research, 10-15% of teenagers have experienced some symptoms of depression, roughly 20% percent of teens will experience depress ion before theyRead MorePsychological Perspectives On Mental Health Disorders1728 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to the world heath organisation (2010) â€Å"health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity†. When looking at the aspect of health most people will mention characteristics of physical health yet fail to include mental health. Psychological perspectives are the different ways in which psychologists look at individual’s behaviours, thoughts and feelings. Although some of the psychological perspectives are very different while othersRead MoreMental Health Records : Psychological Issues848 Words   |  4 PagesThe claimant was a 15 year old boy who alleged disability because of psychological issues. His mother reported that the claimant was attending school and was receiving special education services. He did not participate in any community or school activities. He was taking psychotr opic medications for behavioral problems and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); however, when he was not compliant he had problems at school. The mother indicated that the claimant had recently started counselingRead MoreMental Health Issues Impacted By Psychological Stress2105 Words   |  9 PagesHealth is an essential and important matter that the individual, collective and authorities of a country understand is central to our well-being and because of this significance a great deal of time and finance goes into its maintenance or restored state. However degrees of discrepancy occur as individuals, societies and governments have different views towards health that affect how we treat an illness and who we seek help from. Now, generally, Canadians recognize that the country employs a biomedical

Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners Essay

English Language Learners (ELL) require appropriate education in the English language. Reading, writing, listening, pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar are important for an ELL student to learn. Educators should use individualized lesson plans that will cater to each student’s abilities and knowledge of the secondary language. An ELL classroom is formed with students who do not have the capability to speak or read English fluently. These students are unable to participate in a mainstream classroom without some type of help. The ELL classroom will give students more time to practice English. Comprehensible Input Comprehensible input is academic learning messages. An ELL student must participate if they want to learn the material.†¦show more content†¦Specific feedback is necessary on areas that need to be mastered and areas needing improvement. Check the student understanding during the lesson and at the end of the lesson provide specific feedback to help the student succeed. Grouping Structures and Techniques Before implementing grouping in an ELL classroom, there are three things that need to be thought about â€Å"the teaching context, the teaching content and the individual learner† (Mustfa, 2002). After the decision to use grouping has been made an educator must figure out what outcome they want from their students. ELL educators should view grouping as a good technique. According to Mustfa (2002) educators â€Å"can begin with the process of information gathering, by looking at their teaching context, reviewing their teaching content and by getting to know their learners individually. When all this information is taken into consideration, the teachers will be ready to make effective decisions with regard to the process of grouping for teaching and learning activities in ELL classrooms.† Some researchers believe that grouping ELL students is an ineffective technique. The ELL students will be less likely to speak English if they are grouped together. These students will speak to each other in their native language and have no reason to speak to another in English. There are many techniques that can be used in a group setting. BuildingShow MoreRelated50 Strategies For Teaching English Language Learners1257 Words   |  6 Pages Book Review: 50 Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners Name Affiliation Date Book Review: 50 Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners Introduction Fifty Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners, Third Edition has been co-authored by Adrienne Herrell and Michael Jordan. It provides various methods that classroom teachers can apply while teaching the English language learners. Examples found in the book illustrate how both students and teachers canRead MoreTeaching And Learning Strategies For Teaching English Language Learners4159 Words   |  17 Pagestool and/or technology-program in primary classrooms for teaching English Language Learners was conducted. The search produced 476 potential studies, of which the most recent 6 studies that met inclusion criteria were selected. The results of these 6 studies were Introduction English is one of the most important languages spoken around the world; so much so, that several countries whose native language is not English are integrating English education in their school systems. These educational trendsRead MoreInstructional Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners Math1811 Words   |  8 PagesInstructional Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners Math EDU 534: Diverse Family Structures October 10, 2012 Abstract This paper investigates and examines the needs of English Language Learners (ELL) in our classrooms today. It defines who they are, gives statistics at three different levels, nationally, statewide and at the school level. 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English, being an international language is taught across, most, if not all modern day nations. It is not only important for personal communication and professional growth but also for socialization in a world that is increasingly globalized (Fujimoto-Adamson, p. 259). English languageRead MoreElls Essay1006 Words   |  5 PagesUsing Strategies to Increase Oral Language Development for ELLs In recent decades, the United States has seen a dramatic increase in the diverse population, especially with English-language learners in the education system. English-language learners are students who are unable to communicate fluently or learn effectively in English. These students come from a non-English speaking home or background and require specialized instruction in the English language and their academic courses. Educators useRead MoreCapstone Essay1044 Words   |  5 PagesExplain how understanding specific English language learners needs guided the choice of instructional strategies to support the content and language learning. It is essential to understand English language learners’ needs because ELL students face the combined challenge of learning all the academic content as other students, while also learning the language of instruction. With the rapid growth in the size of the ELL student population in the U.S., teachers who are effective recognizes ELL studentsRead MoreThe Approaches And Practices Of Language Teaching Essay1327 Words   |  6 PagesApproaches and Practices in Language Teaching Communicative Practices in Language Teaching What is communicative language teaching (CLT)? Brown (2014, p. 236) offered the following four interrelated characteristics as the definitions of CLT: 1. CLT helps students develop the four competences instead of merely focusing on their linguistic competence or grammatical competence 2. CLT enables learners to use the language for meaningful purposes in authentic situations. Learning language forms are not the aimRead MoreThe Effects Of Listening Strategy Instruction On Learners Autonomy Of The Iranian Efl Learners1049 Words   |  5 PagesIn the process of teaching English, listening strategy instruction as one of the language learning strategy is the missing piece of the puzzle of most language teaching classrooms. This is more obvious when most learners criticize about their ability in listen appropriately. In fact, language learners do not know the nature of listening, how to improve their listening, and how to overcome the listening comprehension problems occurring while listening. Because of insufficient researches in the field

Strategy and Leadership of Organisation

Question: Describe about the Organizational Strategy and Leadership Answer: Introduction: An organization is always defined by its mission, goals and objectives that need to be clearly provided in the organizational context. It should be clearly understood in terms of its business which is provided by the organization. Organizational Strategy can be defined as detailed assessment of tasks that is to be done and that has to be assimilated with proper planning and executing the plans thereof. There has to be a strategy that could state a benchmark for organizational effectiveness. Organizational strategy also involves implementation and evaluation of the strategies and to build on the weaknesses thereof (BusinessDictionary.com, 2015). Organizational strategy helps to achieve the objectives of an organization and also allocates resources to implement them. Leadership is a part of the Human Resource aspect where a leader takes initiatives to build on the accomplishment of task. A leader is a person who is followed in an organization by other employees. A leader has the ability to understand organizations strategic goals and can link daily performance to long term perspectives. A leader should also possess the ability of developing strategies to support the mission of the company (Jstor.org, 2015). Company profile of APPLE: Apple Inc. is a leading mobile communications company that was initiated in the year 1977 on 3rd January by Steven Wozniak and Steven Jobs. This company basically deals with designing and manufacturing of mobiles, personal computers, laptops, media devices, software services, peripherals. Some of its products include iPod, iPhone, iPad, Mac, Apple Tv and other software applications based on OS and iOS. It also provides with various accessories and service support offerings. The company is headquarterd in Cupertino, California. In 1980 Apple II was introduced in the market for higher prospects in the market. Apple was tried to come up with Apple III but it failed because it could not compete with IBM. Apple was the first company to launch mouse driven computer called Macintosh. But it could not perform well and Apple lost its hold from the market (Apple, 2015). In 1998 Apple launched a new computer called IMac which gave a huge impact to the company and sold 800,000 units within five months instantly. Later on they came up with digital music player called Iphone. Today Apple has 317 retail stores that consist of 233 stores in the US and 84 stores across other parts of world. It is also drawn that Apple consists of 34300 full time employees through Apple 2010 Annual report. Analyzing Business Strategy and External Environment When we discuss about an organizations business strategy we discuss about the progress, faults and success of Apple Inc and evaluate them on the basis of SWOT analysis. SWOT Analysis: Strengths: This relates to the capability of the company of using its resources, products and capabilities effectively in the market environment. One of the biggest strength of Apple is that it has able to position its brand name globally in the market in spite of presence of tough competition from the challengers. Apple has positioned itself to be the only brand developing products that are updated with latest fashion and technology. For example it introduced mobile iPhone , MAC and Ipad and Ipod in this industry. Apple is one of the companies that provide original hardware in the market for manufacturing its own products. This company develops its own internal subparts and other components to launch a product in the market. Apple cater to receive high customer satisfaction because of delivering very high end products in the market. Apple works with a strong Research and Development team (RD) who uses eco friendly techniques to develop a product. Inspite of highly priced the company has a strong preference in the minds of its customers who are loyal to the company. Weaknesses: There is a tough competition in the market from its competitors who are producing similar tablets, mobiles and computers. Therefore it is a weakness for the company that they have to deliver their best and maintain consistency. The company also failed to promote two of their products, one is Mac Mini and the other is Apple TV. Even it is a weakness that Iphone mobile is a single network operator gadget in this industry. Pricing is a very important aspect for Apple as all customers cannot cater to premium rated products for luxury means (Jurevicius, 2015). Opportunity: One of The biggest opportunities for the company is that the company is under telecom sector which in todays world is constantly growing and developing. Thus it helps in creating high demand for its products and services. Apple has taken initiatives to launch eco friendly and energy saving products in the market. Apple has also introduced new line of products in the market for price conscious customers. Intel chip has been introduced with operating system to develop iTunes and music player technology to venture into the software technology as well. Threats: Apple is facing enormous threat from its competitor like Dell, IBM, Samsung, HTC, Nokia etc in Indian and international markets as well. The company is also facing a threat of substitute products because taste and preference of the consumers are changing rapidly. Introducing new regulations and rise in the rate of trade barriers are also imposing threats to the company as a whole. There is a chance of global recession which can leverage as a threat to the company. PEST factors of Apple: Political: Half of the companys sales of their products and services come from America. We can infer that there are bad political relations between US and other countries which could provide bad output to the company. It was concluded that 52% of sales were not within America. Also we know that Apple produces many of its products which is not within USA. There were issues of political conflicts among places like Korea, Ireland, and China etc. Economic: UK has the worlds economic power in terms of prices going high and low. Therefore Apple got the added advantage with three main important factors: recession, currency and inflation. Customers gave low importance to Apples products because it was highly priced and catered to business level people of the world who could afford them. Also the value of US dollar keeps on fluctuating in the market therefore the economic effects on the company can be minimized. The economic depression can also pose an impact on the sales turnover and it could hinder the improvements of the company as a whole. Apple could increase its revenue only because the prices of dollar have gone down in current market scenario. Socio-Cultural: With globalization Apple has been able to socialize itself around the world. Today because of latest technology Apple has able to withstand its current position as one of the leading brands in the market. Apple has also penetrated its brand into the music segment and cyber world which is a very essential part in everyones life. There are classic examples of leaders from all over the worlds who portrays Apple as a class apart brand in individuals mind. Also recently the purchasing power of people have gone up which have shifted the peoples preference over Apple most likely. Thus Apple is considered as a status symbol in todays world (Ukessays.com, 2015). Technological: Apple needs to keep its pace along with its competitors and continuously upgrade their products with the latest technology. Over the past years Apples technologic al environment has synonymously increased in the globalized market. Today people give more preference over the latest modern gadgets and this factor is continuously encouraging the competitors for further improvement and Apple is doing so. Moreover Apple is sitting with most strong Research and Development team which no other brand has. There are well known engineers, technical personnel and IT professionals associated with this brand since years. Leadership and People Theories: Leaders associated with this company are considered to be major risk takers. They have the vision to account for companys profitability and hold a strong presence over emotional stability. They are adapted to change and are very highly focused in their work and open to experience such challenges easily. They are passionate towards their work and are fully dedicated to give best to the company. Analyzing the resources and capabilities of the company: The company discussed upon has a very healthy bunch of resources. Apple Inc. has many resources tangible as well as intangible. The resources that accounts for tangible resources are:1. The Human Resource: The human resource of the company comprises of the world class people with a great deal of experience as well as expertise in the job. Apple is known for its excellent design and its innovative and creative engineers.2. The hardware: The hardware that they use in their gadgets have brilliant show and its beauty adds to the value of the software that they use.3. The Software: Apple is known for the sophistication of its software, which is not available anywhere in any product. The software is of immense quality and has a long lasting feature without any corruption.4. Retail stores: Apple has many stores worldwide; these stores carry forward its reputation and make it more popular amongst the customers (Inc.com, 2015).Intangible Resources:1. Expertise of the employees: The employees of Apple Inc. are world-class engineers and developers who have innovation and creativity in mind. They design all the products in such a fashion, which can never be created by any other company. The company takes the pride of being the seller of the most beautiful gadgets in the world.2. Powerful Brand image: The name of the company is its biggest asset. The company is known in every nook and corner of the world. It is matter of high pride to own a Apple gadget.3. Customer Database: Customer is a matter of high priority to the company. They take care of the employees and maintain a strong database. They have outsourced the customer care facility available to the customers. So that the queries of the customers are solved very easily and they dont face much problem with the product.4. Unique design capability: As mentioned above the company manufactures very stylish and strong gadgets. These gadgets are well known in the world for their unique designs and these are why they have cult customers. These customers do not buy any other product once they start using Apple gadgets.5. Cash: The gadgets are the most expensive gadgets in the market. It is as if they sell value, some sort of state of art, which has no match with any other gadget. The company has generated huge revenue in the last one decade. The buying capacity of the people has increased and luxuries are dwelling in all sections now. People tend to buy products that are more luxurious and maintain standards. The internal capacities of the company: These threshold internal capabilities have made Apple the most desirable product in the market. In the absence of these capabilities, it is impossible for any company to exist in the market. Apple has the smartest engineers of the world. The unique style of the ex-CEO and founder of the company Mr. Steve Jobs has curved a different way to manufacture the products. The products are not only very beautiful but also very competent. The company itself designs the software. The engineers have produced products like OS X operating system. The products like iphone and ipod exploded in the market, the Macs are the excellent personal computers in the world. The Apple app has more than 300,000 applications in the app store. Apple store located anywhere are its distribution centres as well as they act as advertisements. The stores are wonderful place and they bring the best to the customers. Apple retail stores are the main sources of their success. Competitive edge of the company: The unique capabilities make the company gain an edge over other companies in the market. Other resources matter to the company but the core competency of unique designing makes Apple very desirable in the market. They target upper segment of the market who can afford it. Apple has its prime focus on the quality and demarcation for attractive products. The functionality of the products goes through many tests and the company spends a lot of capital in Research and development. Innovation with quality is the main objective of the company. Some years back Motorola, Nokia, Samsung acquired the cell phone market, but when Apple hit the market with its innovative products, the shine of all other product faded away. Apple creates more value to its customers and enhances the market growth with its product and services (Contents, 2015). Acquisition and Alliances of Apple Inc.: Apple has acquired as many as 21 companies till now. The companies that it acquires are mostly software companies. The company believes in developing technology within the house and takes no risk joined with integration of other companies. It is necessary for the company to believe in acquisition because they are producing more technologically advanced products. The reasons of strategic alliances of Apple are to gain knowledge from its competitors, managing the risks involved and to exploit the economies of scales. Apple also has its alliance with ATand T in the production of the Apple iphone. There were risks involved in the alliance of maintaining secrecy but the companies took the alliances and the market exploded with those beautiful and mind blowing phones. Market also saw the strategic alliance of Apple and Microsoft in developing software for Mac books on which Apple offered to put internet explorer to its computers. Apple also has its alliances with Intel for their core proce ssors into their products. It was for those customers who preferred Intel over windows processors. In the year 2004, Apple started its alliance with Hewlett Packard and developed software for its ipods. That software is itunes (Merriam-webster.com, 2015). Conclusion: After doing this intense study on the competitive strategy of Apple Inc. it is seen that the company does every possible function to make the product look very beautiful and technologically advanced. These products are much received and it has an inbound capability to produce cult customers. These customers do not go to any other product in the market once they start using the apple products. The apple product is a chain of values that are sold in the market. People are ready to buy the product with a high value, much more than all other competitors product. The customers find a satisfaction that no other product can deliver. The deliverance of the product is so high that it serves more than what is expected. Meeting the customer`s expectation is what the company does. The high end products of apple are targeted for the esteemed class of the society who are ready to pay the price for its functioning. The future of the company is assumed beautiful and successful. It has many alliances and acquisitions that have helped to come up with some of the best and innovative products of the world. The best part of Apple is that it believes in learning, learning with every pace. The company does not believe in stagnancy and is always in motion of its development. The development of Apple Inc is motivated and influenced by the leadership of its Ex-CEO and founder Mr. Steve Jobs. References: Apple, (2015).Apple (India). [online] Available at: https://www.apple.com/in/ [Accessed 18 Feb. 2015]. BusinessDictionary.com, (2015).What is organizational strategy? definition and meaning. [online] Available at: https://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organizational-strategy.html [Accessed 18 Feb. 2015]. Chandler, A., Hagstrom, P. and Solvell, O. (1998).The dynamic firm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Contents, S. (2015).Strategic Analysis of Apple Inc. Table of Contents. [online] Academia.edu. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/7023858/Strategic_Analysis_of_Apple_Inc._Table_of_Contents [Accessed 18 Feb. 2015]. Inc.com, (2015).Welcome to Inc.com. [online] Available at: https://www.inc.com/welcome.html?destination=https://www.inc.com/karl-and-bill/3-strategies-to-adopt-from-apple.html [Accessed 18 Feb. 2015]. Jstor.org, (2015).Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process on JSTOR. [online] Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/257544?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 18 Feb. 2015]. Jurevicius, O. (2015).Apple SWOT analysis 2015 | Strategic Management Insight. [online] Strategicmanagementinsight.com. Available at: https://www.strategicmanagementinsight.com/products/swot-analyses/apple-swot-analysis-2014.html [Accessed 18 Feb. 2015]. Merriam-webster.com, (2015).Definition of Acquisition. [online] Available at: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/acquisition [Accessed 18 Feb. 2015]. Ukessays.com, (2015).PESTEL five forces and SWOT analysis of Apple. [online] Available at: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/marketing/pestel-five-forces-and-swot-analysis-of-apple-marketing-essay.php [Accessed 18 Feb. 2015].

How can Multinational Managers make Ethical Decisions

It is not simple to understand why multinational managers behave unethically. However, some general reasons that guide their behaviours could include societal culture, decision-making processes, personal ethics, organisational culture, leadership, and unrealistic performance goals.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on How can Multinational Managers make Ethical Decisions? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The above reasons explain why international managers may behave unethically. Hence, ethical behaviour relies on whatever is good for an individual. Societal cultures differ from one region to another. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions of collectivism and individualism could help in explaining why managers behave unethically in different societies. For instance, managers would act unethically and promote corruption in countries like Russia and China, which emphasise collectivism (Robertson and Fadil 387). Internati onal managers may lack integrity and honour that guide their personal ethics. As a result, they may engage in unethical behaviours. While strong personal ethics may help multinational managers to act ethically, managers who found themselves in cultures that do not emphasise the importance of personal ethics may engage in unethical behaviours. Organisational cultures emphasise the importance of ethical behaviours when dealing with all stakeholders, but managers may not observe such practices in foreign countries. For instance, Chinese companies are known to emphasise economic benefits at the expense of other corporate responsibilities. As a result, they have encouraged corruption when seeking contracts and tenders in foreign countries. Leadership sets examples for others to follow. The Enron scandal demonstrates poor leadership that leads to unethical behaviours in firms. Hence, a failure in leadership may encourage unethical behaviours among junior employees. In most cases, multinat ional firms may not realise that their decisions are unethical because they fail to question their decision-making processes. For instance, critics have argued that Starbucks exploits coffee growers, but the company has not evaluated its decision to view them as unethical.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Parent companies put pressure on their multinational branches to perform better based on unrealistic performance goals (Hill 155). As a result, these companies resort to unethical practices in order to meet their performance expectations. Managers may ignore both personal ethics and organisational ethical practices in order to achieve performance targets by engaging in corruption. Multinational organisations have codes ethics that guide their operations overseas. Codes of ethics rely on Kantian and right-based theories of moral philosophy (Hill 163). These business codes of ethics have become under intense public scrutiny in the recent past. Such managers still experience ethical conflicts, but they must behave ethically. Managers should observe consistent ethical behaviours embedded in their firms in order to behave ethically. Codes of ethics must account for strategic decision-making processes in daily operations. Hence, multinational managers and their juniors have the responsibilities of observing and communicating organisational values. They should encourage culture changes in order to observe ethical practices in foreign countries. However, managers must observe that it takes significant effort and time to instil culture changes in an organisation. Managers should observe personal ethics and organisational ethical practices in order to behave ethically. Parent companies often pressure their foreign branches to perform best. Multinational managers must not be sceptical about their corporate ethical values or how such values relate to their roles, performances, or how other local managers perceive such values. Multinational organisations must encourage responsible leadership. Responsible leadership should focus on the entire organisation, and junior managers should encourage ethical values and comprehend how such values affect their roles. Leadership must also highlight potential ethical challenges and risks to the organisation. Managers encourage transparent hiring and promotion. Employees must maintain integrity and act responsible while the companies provide safe work environments. Managers also need moral courage to avoid unethical behaviours, and moral officers ensure that employees uphold ethical behaviours.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on How can Multinational Managers make Ethical Decisions? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The essay has highlighted causes of unethical behaviours among multinational managers. In addition, it also shows how such ma nagers can engage in ethical behaviours. Works Cited Hill, Charles. International Business: Competing in the Global Marketplace, 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2013. Print. Robertson, Chris and Paul Fadil. â€Å"Ethical Decision Making in Multinational Organizations: A Culture-Based Model.† Journal of Business Ethics 19 (1999): 385–392. Print. This essay on How can Multinational Managers make Ethical Decisions? was written and submitted by user Justus Rowland to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How to Deal With Suckers and Watersprouts on Trees

How to Deal With Suckers and Watersprouts on Trees In horticulture, the terms  sucker  and  watersprout  refer  to vigorous new shoots that grow from root stock or dormant bud tissue on trunks and branches. They are mostly a problem on fruit trees and some types of landscape trees. Suckers and watersprouts may occur on any tree when the tree has experienced stressful conditions, such as drought, severe pruning, or loss of a limb.   Watersprouts vs. Suckers Watersprouts and suckers are similar, but not exactly the same. They differ primarily in their location on the tree. A sucker is effectively a new propagation of a tree, but one that originates at the basil root level rather than by a seed. Suckers typically sprout up from below ground level, or very near the ground. They grow up as an extension of the roots. On grafted trees, such as many fruit trees, the sucker will sprout up below the level of the graft. If left to grow, the new tree will have the characteristics of the root stock tree, not the grafted stock. Such suckers should be removed when they appear. Certain species of trees typically propagate themselves through this type of reproduction, and suckers are also common on them. Privet and hazel trees are two such species. Here, too, suckers are considered invasive  and should be removed. Left unattended, suckers can gradually overtake a yard.   A watersprout is a form of shoot that originates above ground,  on the trees trunk or branches at the location of latent bud tissues. Watersprouts are very likely to arise in response to pruning or damage to the tree, such as branches broken off in storms. They are undesirable because the tissues in a watersprouts are not as strong as normal branches. In fruit trees, watersprout branches normally produce little, if any, fruit.   Sucker sprouts and water sprouts can sometimes provide clues to a  trees health. Both types of sprouts may indicate that there is injury or dead wood above the level of the sprouts. This is likely when a tree without a history of such sprouting begins to send out suckers and watersprouts. They are a compensatory mechanism, an attempt by the tree for to find vigor when it is not being provided by other vegetation.   How to Remove Suckers and Watersprouts It is best to remove suckers and watersprouts immediately. These shoots  divert energy from upper growth on the tree, and removing them will promote development  of the upper greenery. Suckers and watersprouts  can also quickly ruin the aesthetic appearance  of a tree.  Ã‚   Some care should be taken when removing suckers and watersprouts  to ensure clean edges. Tearing away sprouts can leave ragged edges where bacterial or fungus can take hold, so cutting them away with sharp tools is a better strategy.   Mix one part bleach and 10 parts water in a bucket.Dip your hand pruner or lopping shares into the bleach solution to sterilize the blades.  Cut away the sprout with the blade held at a 45- to 60-degree angle, as close as possible to the trunk, tree branch, or tree base. The goal is to cut inside any bud areas where new sprouts might emerge. Take care not to damage the trunk or main branch.   Where suckers or watershoots are extremely  prevalent, or when they appear suddenly on a tree with no history of them, it may indicate a major problem with the tree.  Removal of the tree  may be your only solution when suckers are too numerous. You will then need to apply a brush killer to control the sprouts that may come up from the remaining stump.

Pfizers Unsuccessful Takeover of Astrazeneca Essay - 5

Pfizers Unsuccessful Takeover of Astrazeneca - Essay Example On 25th November 2013, Pfizer, a US company expressed its interest to enter into a merger with AstraZeneca. This is a crucial stage of initiating a merger, where the interested party expresses for the first time the consideration for a merger. The second stage of the merger is the high-level discussion in which the two parties sit down and discuss in detail the path they are going to follow in the merger. At this point, the interested company proposes its offer to which the other party may accept or reject. On 5th January 2015, the two companies held high-level talks in which Pfizer offered $58 per share (Farrell, 2014). After considering the offer, the AstraZeneca rejected the offer and the no more discussion was held after January. The step of Pfizer to go public on its interest to merge with AstraZeneca in April 2014 is an important stage of the merger. The main purpose of this stage is to draw the public assessment into the merger and consider the logistics behind its association . At this point, other multinational companies have the opportunity to consider the offer evaluate and criticize it. The national government also is called at this point to intervene in merger and to consider whether the offer is to the public’s interest. From this point, the leader of the company engages the parliament before the science and technology committee to further negotiate on the offer. Later on, the company offers a higher bid and promises to give $69 per year and to absorb about 20% of the researchers for at least five years (Farrell, 2014). At this stage, AstraZeneca has an opportunity to reconsider how this offer would affect their business. The CEO of the company needs to obtain information on how the merger would benefit its company and how his management would achieve their goals. The fact that the company rejects the offer at this stage shows that the company is bound to  lose from the bond.

International trade theory and policy Term Paper

International trade theory and policy - Term Paper Example Before the end of World War II, countries had their own protectionist measures in place in terms of tariffs to safeguard their domestic manufacturers and businesses since a long time. The high tariffs were becoming a great hindrance to global trade. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in first six rounds from 1948 through 1967 provided the basic framework for tariff reductions. All first six rounds were mainly devoted on reducing tariffs and other barriers to trade and eliminate or lessen discriminatory treatment to promote global growth in trade (World Trade Organization). While there were only 23 participating countries in the first round of discussion, this numbers increased to 62 during the sixth Kennedy Round of negotiation. The 23 founding members of the GATT were also part of a group who were negotiating the ITO Charter as a specialized body of the United Nations. The ITO Charter was quite ambitious as it covered rules on employment, international investment, res trictive business practices, and commodity agreements. Early provisions of GATT did mention about accepting some of the trade rules of the ITO draft; however, the ITO Charter could not be ratified due to serious opposition within the US Congress. This resulted into the early death of the ITO charter and GATT remained only instrument that governed international trade (World Trade Organization). Through intensive talk and deliberations right from the first to the sixth round of negotiations, the participating countries could arrive at the consensus to reduce effective tariff rates from 38% in 1947 to just 9 percent by year 1972. Apart tariff reduction, the major turnaround came in the sixth round of negotiation when anti-dumping agreement came into effect. It should be noted that first five rounds were focused on item-by-item negotiation for the reduction of tariffs while the sixth round took some bold approach reducing tariff across the board; however, it is important to keep in mind that these rounds had little success in achieving non-tariff trade relations among the nation. The sixth round also called the Kennedy Round lasted over 3 years and provided tariff concessions to the tune of $40 billion. In view of the strong global protectionism prevailed at that time, achievements in the Kennedy Round were noteworthy. The Kennedy Round was the first of its kind that went beyond tariff reduction discussions and advanced the idea of non-tariff barriers besides highlighting the concerns of the developing world; however, trade in services, intellectual property rights were never discussed in the first six rounds of negotiation (World Trade Organization). Q: Discuss the global economic conditions in the mid-70s, and the anti-trade policies that became common despite the GATT. Motivate by worry about these policies, the 7th (Tokyo) Round was called to start in 1973. How can this Round be simultaneously considered a â€Å"success† (by the GATT Secretariat) and a â€Å"failure† by most international economists. Answer Those were the tumultuous years in mid-‘70s when Bretton Woods system based on fixed exchange rate collapsed. The system failed because the US dollar came under tremendous pressure to devalue. In the process of financing the Vietnam War and implementing public welfare programs during those years, the US government had increased its spending substantially that eventually resulted into increased money

The Psychological And Physical Aspects Of Hypnosis Philosophy Essay

The Psychological And Physical Aspects Of Hypnosis Philosophy Essay In this essay I am going to look at what hypnosis is. I will look at the definition of the word hypnosis and how it relates to the practice of hypnotherapy. I will then go on to look at the history, paying particular attention to Franz Mesmer and James Braid. We will look at the difference between hypnosis and meditation and the common myths surrounding hypnosis. And also the physical effects hypnosis can have on patients. Hypnosis comes from the Greek word Hypnos which means to sleep. Hypnosis is a state of relaxation where the state of awareness is elevated by suggestion. Forms of hypnosis have been used as long ago as forth century BC, with evidence to support it being used by the ancient Greeks and Romans. We will now look at Franz Anton Mesmer (1734 1815) who was born in Iznang, Germany. Mesmer originally studied medicine, where he published his doctoral, On the influence of the planets on the Human Body. The dissertation discussed the relationship between the human body and disease in relation to the moon and planets. Although this was later thought to be plagiarised from the work of Richard Mead (1673 1754) In 1768 Mesmer married wealthy widow Anna Maria Von Posch and moved to Vienna, where he began his work on what he would later call animal magnetism. Mesmer had always been convinced that he had more magnetic power than most people, and so could work the cures better (Waterfield, 2004: 88) Mesmers work with Franziska Osterlin in 1774, involved her swallowing iron and then placing magnets on the different parts of her body. The patient claimed to feel fluid flowing through her body and several hours later her symptoms had gone. Mesmer however did not believe that this was due to the magnets alone and that it was the animal magnetism that had in fact relieved her of her symptoms. By 1776 Mesmer was surrounded by a scandal after he attempted to restore the vision of Maria Theresia Paradis, a musician who had been blind since birth. Mesmer attempted to restore the musicians sight but subsequently she lost all ability to play the piano and was taken away by her parents and Mesmer was then under speculation of using magic. Mesmer then left Vienna and moved to Paris where he started a medical practice. Whilst in Paris Mesmer worked with individuals and groups, by 1780 Mesmer had too many patients and therefore used a treatment called baquet where he would treat up to 20 people at a time. In 1784 and at the request of King Louis XVI a series of experiments were conducted by members of the Faculty of medicine to distinguish if Mesmer had in fact discovered a new physical fluid. However there was no evidence to prove this and that it was in fact down to the imagination. Mesmer died in 1815 of a stoke and in his last 20 years no one knows of any further work that Mesmer may have done. Alexandre Bertrand (1795 1831) work was of huge significance to the history of hypnosis. He did not agree with Mesmers theory of a mystical fluid and believed that it was the art of suggestion. James Braid (1795 1860) began working on his own method of mesmerisation after witnessing a demonstration which showed subjects going into a physical state quite different to their normal behaviour. After much work Braid changed his theory of it being a sleep-based physiological theory to a psychological theory. Braid believed that hypnotism was a nervous sleep which could be inflicted by staring at a bright object, although much later Braid stated that only a small minority could be affected (only 10%.) Braid used the word hypnosis which led to much confusion as people believe that they would in fact be asleep, Braid did try and later re-name this to monoeidism but people continued to use the word hypnosis, which is what it is still referred to today. Later Braid stopped using bright objects after realising that he could achieve the same outcome simply by talking to his patients with suggestion. He distinguished the shallow and deep phrases or layers of the trance states; the first he called sub-hypnotic and claimed that it was this that the electro-biologists could produce; the second he called the double conscious, because he found his subjects to be dissociated (as we would now say) from their normal states. (Waterfield, 2004: 203) A strong follower of Braids work was Ambroise-Auguste Liebeault (1823 1904) who was the founder of the Nancy School, also known as the Suggestion School believed that the verbal suggestion was a powerful tool in successfully treating medical conditions and believed that everyone could be hypnotized. Due to the controversy surrounding hypnosis and the difficulty in obtaining consent from his patients Liebeault gave his patients a choice. They could either pay for the traditional treatment or consent to hypnotherapy which they could get for free, due to most of Liebeaults patients being poor many agreed to hypnosis, allowing Liebeault to continue to develop hypnosis. Many people have the incorrect belief that meditation and hypnosis are in fact the same thing; however it is important to distinguish the differences. Whilst they do share similar techniques such as visualisation and breathing, meditation is used to free the mind from conscious thought, whereas hypnotherapy is used for a specific outcome. Therefore whilst meditation and hypnotherapy both aim to relax the patient, hypnotherapy will then lead the patient through therapeutic suggestions. This technique can then be used to change the sub-conscious mind, e.g. telling a person who wants to quit smoking that smoking is bad for them. Hypnotherapy is a tool that can be used to deliver messages to the sub-conscious mind. There has been much research done on the physical aspects of hypnosis. A number of scientists who have done such research on this subject believe that there are no physical differences to being under hypnosis and those who are not. These scientists state that although the heart rate who slower this was the same for those who were in a relaxed state. However what has been found to be different is the brain activity. Electroencephalographs or EGGs are used to measure a persons electrical brain activity, the first recorded was in 1929 by Hans Barger. Brain waves look consistently different in people who as awake compare to those who are asleep, and people who are relaxed compare to those who are at full alert. Neurologists believe that the brain has two sides, the right side controls a persons creativity and the left is the logical control centre. Whilst under hypnosis, scientists have found that the left side of the brain has a reduced level of activity. There are four types of brain w aves, beta, alpha, theta and delta. Beta brain waves are when a person is awake and fully conscious. Like I am now whilst writing this, I am fully alert and my conscious mind is in control. Alpha brain waves are what everyone has throughout the day. This is when a person day dreams or closes their eyes to relax. In alpha the subconscious mind is being more dominant over the conscious mind. A person is in a light trance, it is in this state that hypnotic suggestion can have effective results. Theta brain waves can be present when meditating, dreaming or being in the zone. The subconscious mind is totally in control. A hypnotherapist can take you to past experiences and where emotions can be found. Theta brain waves can also be present when doing tasks that a person does often. Such as driving home from work, its a journey that you are used to and know the roads well, but a person can bring themselves out of theta in these situations is order to drive carefully. It is quite common when going into theta on a familiar drive that you cant actually remember part of the journey. Delta brain waves are when we go into our subconscious and no other brain waves are present. Delta is what we experience when we are asleep. Most people do not fall asleep when they are under hypnosis, if this does happen then the client can come back into theta state where they can follow the suggestions given by hypnotherapist. If a client stays in delta then suggestion will not work and it will not be effective in the subconscious mind. There are many myths surrounding hypnosis, which still leads people to be dismissive of this form of therapy. This includes the popular belief that hypnotists have some sort of Special Powers and that they can use these powers to get their patients to do silly things, e.g. cluck like a chicken every time the door bell rings or to say or do something that they do not wish to do. This is not the case and everyone under hypnosis is in control and will not do anything they do not wish to do. If you are under hypnosis and someone tells you to do something that you do not wish to do you simply will not do it and it most cases it will actually bring you out of the hypnotic state. Another myth is that people who have hypnosis are weak minded, it is true that the best patients are those that have a creative imagination and are open to the idea of hypnosis will go into the relaxed state easier and deeper but it is true that everyone is suggestible and therefore it is not that it will only work on weak minded people. It is also a common belief that hypnosis can make a person physically stronger or a better athlete. However hypnosis can only enhance a persons existing physical capabilities. There are many more myths surrounding hypnosis which still leave people reluctant to try this form of therapy, these myths will only disperse once people fully understand what hypnosis is.

The Possibilities of the Gap Year Essay -- The Gap Year Abroad

A gap year is a year off of academics, which provides time to explore interests and help determine career choices, containing both positive and negative aspects to consider. A gap year can be spent in a several ways from internships, working, volunteering, or traveling and exploring interests. It can provide students with life impacting traits that can provide a better future and greater outlook on life. If taken seriously, a gap year can have many positive effects on education and the motivation to continue school. Although gap years can be very expensive, it can overall be an opportunity of a lifetime, to create clear academic goals. Although a gap year is most often taken between high school and college, some students decide to take one after under-graduate school and before graduate school or entering the workforce. If a gap year is planned properly, it can help a students take school and life more seriously impacting their entire life. In the UK and similarly in Australia, 11% of university bound students take a gap year (MacDonald 1). Meaning, that almost one in ten students, in the UK and Australia, whom already were planning on attending a university, take part in a gap year. One reason gap years have become popular is that parents have noticed that students are going to college because it is expected of them or for the social aspect, not because they have clear education or career goals in mind (Bull 77). This causes some parents to rethink the idea of a gap year, because college tuition is increasing every year and they do not want to send their child to school if they are not going for the right reasons. Most ‘gappers’ choose to take a gap year because they want adventure, independence, or they want something more that... ...ons of College and Experiences of Stress Prior to and Through the College Career.† College Student Journal 47.4 (2013): 635-643. OmniFile. Web. 19 March 2014. MacDonald, G. Jeffery. â€Å"Gap Year ‘Before College Gives Grads Valuable Life Experiences.‘† USA Today 18 June 2008: 1-3. USAToday.com. Web. 14 March 2014. O’Shea, Joseph. â€Å"Delaying the Academy: A Gap Year Education.† Teaching in Higher Education 16.5 (2011). 565-577. Web. 16 March 2014. Sarouhan, Jane and Sarouhan, Jason. â€Å"Your Goals, Your Life, Your Gap Year.† CollegeXPress Magazine (2013): 22-25. OmniFile. Web. 14 March 2014. Sutherland, Paige. â€Å"College Offers to Pay Students to Take Time Off.† APFinancial News (2014): 1-2. Newswires. Web. 14 March 2014. Torpey, Elka Maria. â€Å"Gap year: Time Off with A Plan.† Occupational Outlook Quarterly 53.3 (2009): 26-31. Business Source Complete. Web. 14 March 2014.

Dress for Success

Assignment #9 – Dress for Success 1. Do you think Cohen had a right to be offended? Why or why not? Cohen had not a right to be offended. She rebuked and wasn’t allowed to attend such an internal meeting; I think it is not appropriate. The older colleague could understand her that was not right dress for the company and she should not attire such dress another time. The colleague could allow her in such internal meeting for first time. The company does not provide the dress information before the meeting; it is the company’s mistake.And Cohen as a new employee, she is unable to know the dress rule for the meeting. So Cohen should have right to attend the meeting at this time. To fix the problem, the company should have dress code policies that include accessory item as well. And each employee must receive a copy of the policy. 2. Does an employer have an unfettered right to set a company’s dress code? Why or why not? Of course, the employer have an unfette red right to set a company’s dress code.The employer has the power to set a company’s dress code, based on the employees is dependency relationship to company. Although I think that the employer should consider many more factors such as belief, values of employees before setting a dress code. A distinct dress code makes a company distinct which will help the company to maintain brand retention and loyalty. When an employer hired the new employees, they should tell the rule of dress code to the new employees. To do so it can drive the employees know and willing to conform the company’s dress code.And setting a dress code in the workplace will have various benefits to the employees as well as to the company. Firstly, having a dress code will ensure that everyone understands what is expected of them and allows protection for the business. Secondly, by having a policy that stipulates what is appropriate and inappropriate this will also ensure that the business and i ts employees can be free of some forms of sexual harassment or favoritism based on a provocative style of a person's clothes.Thirdly, in order to maintain a professional appearance, managers need to dress slightly better than their employees but still within a comfortable or safe realm befitting their work area. 3. How far would you go to conform to an organization’s dress code? If your boss dressed in a relatively formal manner, would you feel compelled to dress in a like manner to manage impressions? I will be highly conformed to an organization’s dress code. An organization the power to set the dress code, I am the employee and am dependency relationship with the organization; so I have no choice beside conform to the dress code.And the dress code can be the rules of the company, I must follow the rules. Boss has the coercive, reward, and legitimate power. So there is no alternative of ingratiation to manage the impression of boss, so I will follow all the ways (exc ept unethical) to ingratiate the boss. If my boss is dressed in a relatively formal manner, I will try to follow my boss’s formality which he/she likes. But I will not feel compelled to dress in a like manner to manage impressions.

Discussing The Playing Field Of Gender And Communication

Gender and Communication Eftagine Fevilien Miami Dade College Author Note Generalizations that can be valued when communicating across the gender line. Abstract Men and women practice enormously different identities and communication curriculums, even if they are raised by the same parents, well sophisticated in the same faculties, have the same career and live in similar state. The reason for that is because there are dissimilar rules of communication that are distinctive to each other. These instructions are recognized by all grown-up members of that sexual category, however because men and women conduct themselves according to two different single sets of rules about what is correct and what is not correct, communication accidents†¦show more content†¦The second characteristic of women’s communication is that they need a responses back from the other individual. Women will try to continue and keep the conversation going by asking all the questions if necessary. Third, women are more expected to use responses like â€Å"Right† and â€Å"oh really† just to spice things up and encouraging the person in continuin g the conversation. Even though, those pleasant confident answers do not essentially show agreement with the statements made by the chatty companion. But, since men have a habit of saying these responses only when they come to an agreement with the talker, they may misapprehend women’s use of responses. On the other hand, a woman may think that her male conversational companion is not paying attention or listening to her because these hints are omitted from his dialogue. Fourth, when women are rudely interrupted while talking, they become silent. Basically, they refuse to join any more in the conversation. Lastly, women normally use the words â€Å"I†, â€Å"you† and â€Å"we† just so they can be aware of the presence of the other talker rather than normal use of the first person. Differences in Relationship Women seek out relationships with others for partnership, management and support and make decisions based on common arrangement. Women wish for friendship, intimacy and similarity. They look for

The Netherlands Sarah (50th) Birthday Tradition

When you celebrate your 50th birthday, some might see you as being over the hill. In contrast, the Sarah tradition in the Netherlands honors a woman gaining wisdom through experience. It is a milestone birthday that many look forward to. Many consider it a cause to have a huge party. Origin of the Sarah Birthday A tradition that hails from the Netherlands, the Sarah birthday is celebrated when a woman turns 50 and becomes a Sarah.  It means that shes old enough and wise enough to have seen Sarah, the biblical figure and wife of Abraham. Likewise, when a man turns 50, he is an Abraham, old enough to have seen Abraham. This tradition is taken from the Bible, particularly  John 8: 56-58. In this passage, Jesus is asked how he could have seen Abraham if he hadnt yet reached fifty. He surprised the inquisitive Jews by saying,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Truly,  truly, I say to you,  before Abraham was, I am.† Besides being Abrahams wife and a natural companion for seeing Abraham, Sarah is revered for having a baby at an older age. In Genesis 18:10-12, the Bible tells the story of her giving birth well past her childbearing years. Dutch Traditions for a Sarah Birthday The Dutch took this Bible passage and turned it into a longstanding tradition. A persons fiftieth birthday is seen as a great occasion, and there is typically a large party to celebrate. One of the best-known and visible parts of a Sarah birthday is placing a life-sized doll in the front yard of the person whos turning 50. It often appears overnight and is dressed and decorated by her family to represent her life and interests. Men have Abraham dolls appear, often dressed according to their occupation. Over the years, these dolls were similar to scarecrows people decorate their porches with on Halloween: simple, folksy human-sized figures sitting in a chair. In recent years, however, its not unusual to see giant inflatable Sarahs and Abrahams in yards. Some of these even reach heights that can rival the home itself. These dolls are often accompanied by a sign saying, Sara 50 jaar† or Abraham 50 jaar.†Ã‚  Jaar oud is Dutch for years old. It doesnt mean that someone named Sarah or Abraham lives there, just that someones celebrating their 50th birthday. Beyond the yard dolls, Sarahs may receive visitors dressed up as Sarahs with costumes and masks. Its also common to bake a Sarah cake, bread, or cookie in the shape of a female figure. Beyond the 50th Birthday The Dutch have taken this a step further and assigned a couple to each decade of a persons life after 50. At 60, you will have an Isaac or Elisabeth birthday.At 70, you will celebrate a Jacob or Anna birthday.At 80, its time for a Joseph or Deborah birthday.At 90, the party is all about Anthony or Ruth.If you are lucky to hit 100 years old, you have a Methusalem or Judith birthday to look forward to.

Fibromyalgia And Bipolar Disorder Extent Of Comorbidity...

Fibromyalgia and Bipolar Disorder: extent of comorbidity and therapeutic implications ABSTRACT Fibromyalgia (FM) is a syndrome that affects muscles and soft tissues. Symptoms include chronic muscle pain, fatigue, sleep disturbances, and painful trigger points and and psychological symptoms such as depression and anxiety. In particular, there is strong evidence of comorbidity of FM and Bipolar Disorder (BD). Therefore, adequate psychiatric assessment is recommended in FM patients with suspected symptoms consistent with BD prior to administration of antidepressants in the treatment of FM. MATERIALS AND METHODS In order to further investigate the comorbidity of fibromyalgia and BD, papers were reviewed from 2006 to February 2016 using the NIH PubMed Literature Search System to search for relevant articles. Inclusion criteria were that manuscripts 1) be primary peer-review research article; 2) concisely explained, or investigated etiological similarities and therapeutic implications of FM and BP; 3) be published in English. DISCUSSION Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic disease of not fully-known etiology and pathophysiology characterized by chronic widespread pain, fatigue and psychological symptoms such as depression and anxiety. Over the years, there have been countless papers reporting on the association

Deviance and violence in schools free essay sample

The article outlines the nature and development of the debate about deviance and violence in schools in England. It explains disciplinary differences in the use of terminology. The focus is on summarising the most recent evidence about the nature and extent of these issues. Policy and practice developments targeted at reducing problem behaviour in and around schools are discussed. The article concludes that there is a great deal of survey and monitoring data in England but a relative lack of in-depth and ethnographic research. KEYWORDS England, deviance and violence, schools The focus is on England, rather than Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) or the United Kingdom (which includes Northern Ireland). Although the four countries have the same government there is a degree of devolution of power that means that there are important differences in the way that the education systems are run, as well as differences in legal governance. The central government Department for Children Families and Schools (DCSF) covers England and Wales only. A few references include evidence from Wales, as well as England; there is one reference to an important longitudinal survey carried out in Scotland. 1 International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 8 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION FOCUS AND APPROACH OF THE REVIEW This review is focused on England and on the most recent research and developments, referring to older research and reports only when they are considered to be landmark or seminal studies. As shorthand this paper will at times refer to ‘problem behaviour’ when not specifically referring to criminal behaviour (that is behaviour that breaks the criminal law) or specific types of behaviour that are clearly defined in research, as in the concept of bullying. The approach taken in this review is inter-disciplinary, but it is most centrally informed by criminology, social policy and education research. The move to Children’s Departments in England in recent years has meant that a more inter-disciplinary approach is increasingly appropriate and particularly in relation to the focus of this review. It is acknowledged that there are mental health issues that may relate to the behaviour of young people in schools (Cowie et al, 2004) but this is not the main focus of this review. There is a great deal of research (Gillborn, 2008) as well as government monitoring data on ethnicity and schools (see for example, DfES, 2006). Monitoring gender and special educational need is an aspect of various annual national reports on schools and the educational system (see the www. dcsf. gov. k for a range of relevant reports). Research on gender (Osler et al, 2001) and special educational need (Visser et al, 2001) is also plentiful. These are all highly complex issues that cannot be covered adequately in a single review. The review was undertaken by updating existing reviews and collections (see for example Debarbieux and Blaya, 2001) on the subject of violence and various forms of ‘behaviour’ problems in schools in England (see relevant concepts and terminology in Figure 1). The social science bibliographic database ‘Assia’ was searched in order to located the most up-to-date published research. Research commissioned and published by the relevant government departments was located through their websites; as was that commissioned by the largest teaching unions. TERMINOLOGY The terminology used in England is quite complex and inevitably influenced by disciplinary, professional and political perspectives. ‘Deviance’ as a concept is strongly associated with criminology but is also recognised as including non-criminal infringements of social norms. Deviance’ as a concept, in both popular and academic discourse in England, has been replaced to a large extent by the concept of ‘anti-social behaviour’ (Home Deviance and violence in schools 9 Office, 2004; Rutter et al, 1998). The use of the word ‘violence’ generally refers to physically aggressive or threatening behaviour in England (Wright and Keetley, 2003). Figure 1 gives an overview of the concepts and terminology used in this review. Teachers and schools focus most on various pupil ‘behaviours’. Most often they refer to ‘disruptive’, ‘disaffected’ and ‘bullying’ behaviours, or sometimes behaviour is said to be ‘challenging. ’ These terms are associated with the particular focus of the behavioural description: for example, ‘disruptive’ refers to the interruption of the work of the teacher and other pupils, or even the smooth working of the school; ‘disaffected’ relates to a range of behaviours that imply a lack of affection for school and may include disruptive behaviour and non-attendance. Challenging’ or ‘inappropriate’ behaviour are other terms used by teachers in relation to how a behaviour impacts on them, or the school context. ‘Bullying’ behaviour is a strong and specific focus of research and campaigns in relation to pupil behaviour. Bullying is usually seen as a particular subset of aggressive and violent behaviours. The very serious nature of some bullying has led Hall and Hayden (2007) to debate whether some forms of bullying could be conceptualised as ‘hate crime. ’ International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 10 This review will cover the key evidence about the various problematic behaviours (shown in Figure 1) that together make up the available research on ‘deviance’ and ‘violence’ in English schools. It should be borne in mind whilst reading this review that the boundaries between behaviours that break with social norms or rules and those that break the criminal law have become increasingly blurred in recent years in England. This has happened partly as a result of the focus on ‘crime prevention’ (and the criminalisation of social policy, Rodger, 2008) and, partly because there is in any case the ossibility for interpreting actions in more than one way. For example, when does a playground ‘fight’ become ‘assault’? CONTEXT – DEVELOPMENT OF CONCERNS Although there is evidence of some concern about the behaviour of young people in school wherever there are historical records (see Tubbs, 1996). A more specific concern beg an to grow in England following the raising of the school leaving age in 1973. At the time this concern focussed on ‘disruptive’ behaviour and ‘discipline’ problems and led to a government enquiry, known as The Elton Report (DES/WO, 1989). The specific problem of bullying in schools was increasingly recognized during the 1990s and has been a focus of school based research and interventions ever since. In recent years there has been a national annual Anti-Bullying Week. The Education Reform Act 1988 is often seen as a watershed in relation to how schools are evaluated and what teachers can do to motivate all pupils. Prior to this Act, teachers had more freedom in what they taught and could devise courses for young people who did not respond well to traditional academic study. The Act led to the imposition of a National Curriculum on schools, this resulted in direct comparisons of test results between schools and the creation of ‘league tables’ of school test and examination results. The lack of flexibility in curriculum design and the pressure to achieve test and exam results is associated with increased evidence of ‘disaffection’ in schools and a rising rate of exclusion from school. The publication of the first national data on exclusion from school in 1992 and subsequent annual data is one measure of the limits of teacher tolerance of young people’s behaviour. Since the mid 1990s there have been broader concerns about safety in and around schools, following very varied and high profile events. For example, the fatal stabbing at the school gates of head teacher Philip Lawrence, by a teenager from another school, whilst trying to defend one of his pupils in 1995; ‘the Dunblane massacre’ (16 primary age children killed by an adult intruder in 1996); the fatal stabbing of Luke Walmsley, by another pupil, in a school corridor, in a rural secondary school in 2003; the abduction and murder of two schoolgirls by their school caretaker in 2002 (‘the Soham Deviance and violence in schools 11 urders’). More recently there has been a variety of high profile examples of children attacked by other children in and around schools (Lewis, 2005; Wainwright, 2005). Crime prevention and reducing social exclusion have been key themes applied to various areas of social policy, since the election of a ‘New Labour’ government in 1997. From 1997 to date, work with schools and young people is a mix of crime prevention and attempts to open up opportunity through education. The increased focus on crime prevention through education and schools could be seen as part of the wider debate about the criminalisation of social policy (Rodger, 2008). UNDERSTANDING PUPIL BEHAVIOUR: CHANGING EMPHASIS IN GOVERNMENT POLICY Official explanations of problematic behaviour within schools have evolved rapidly in recent years. One of the last Conservative administrations saw the issue as Pupils with Problems (DfEE, 1994) – illustrating a belief in the individual nature and location of ‘the problem’. The first New Labour administration changed the focus to Social Inclusion: Pupil Support (DfEE, 1999) – in keeping with the strong policy emphasis on combating social exclusion (see for example SEU, 1998). More recent reviews and guidance emphasise the quality of the teaching and learning environment, raising levels of school attendance and expectations (Steer, 2005) – highlighting the role of teachers and schools. The Department for Children, Families and Schools (DCSF2) website illustrates this latter perspective, referring to the behaviour and attendance strand of the Key Stage 3 strategy3: This programme will help schools promote positive behaviour and tackle the issue of low-level disruption. The aims are to ensure that all schools have the skills and support that they need to maintain creative and positive learning environments for all children to give support in developing positive behaviour throughout the school and to help schools to develop pro-active policies (DCSF, 2008a, para 1, my emphasis). There have been several changes in the name of this government Department in the last twenty years: DES/WO (Department of Education and Science/Welsh Office); DfEE, (Department for Education and Employment); DfES (Department for Education and Skills). At the time of writing DCSF refers to the department that covers child and family welfare, as well as education in schools. ?470 million was made available from 2003, to support the development of this strategy. Key Stage 3, refers to the educational stage for 11-14 year olds. 2 International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 12 There is some resistance to this emphasis on teaching and learning as the key to countering disruptive and violent behaviour in schools, from teaching unions, for example: Teachers cannot teach and pupils cannot learn in an environment where there is disruption and violence and where such behaviour occurs it cannot be explained away simply by attributing it to teachers’ abi lity to plan and deliver lessons appropriately (NAS/UWT, 2007, para 1). In the last few years, there is an increasing awareness of the need to have strategies in place to address the more extreme issues of weapons carrying and youth gangs in schools (see for example guidance to schools, DCSF, 2007a, 2008b; research sponsored by a teaching union, Broadhurst, Duffin and Taylor, 2008; and, academic research Hayden, 2008). METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES OF EVIDENCE There is a wide variety of evidence that can inform this review. Some of the research is undertaken by independent academic researchers, some is undertaken for (and by) government departments, charitable organisations, as well as statutory agencies. Surveys of school pupils are common. Research into bullying behaviour has a long history with the annual ‘Anti-Bullying Week’ adding an additional impetus to all kinds of monitoring and research activities. Surveys have also been conducted within schools in relation to criminal and anti-social behaviour. Some national surveys have been repeated a number of times in recent years, allowing the accumulation of trend data on offending and victimisation: such as the cross-sectional survey for the Youth Justice Board, carried out six times between 1999-2008, see summary, MORI (2006) and most recent reports at the time of writing (MORI 2008a, 2008b). The MORI survey includes a mainstream pupil sample (11-16 year olds) and a sample of young people attending Pupil Referral Units (PRUs) and similar facilities for excluded pupils. There is also an ongoing annual survey of 10-25 year olds, undertaken by the Home Office, since 2003 (see for example Roe and Ashe, 2008). The Home Office survey includes a panel sample and a fresh sample each year, weighted to ensure that it is representative. Other research is longitudinal and tracks a cohort of over 4,000 secondary school children in one city (Edinburgh, Scotland), with a focus on youth transitions and crime (Smith and McVie, 2003). Key government-led enquiries about pupil behaviour that involve consultations with experts and practitioners have been undertaken at intervals: as in the Elton Report (DES/WO, 1989) and ongoing Steer Committee (see for example Steer, 2005). Interviews with teachers, pupils and parents are also relatively common (Hayden, 1997; Parsons, 1999; Hayden and Dunne, 2001). These Deviance and violence in schools 13 studies explore experience and perspective and provide insights into causes and potential solutions to problem behaviour. There has been a range of government-led programmes and interventions, as well as initiatives led by individual institutions and organisations, aimed at preventing or responding to problem behaviour in and around schools in the last decade alongside a great deal of evaluative research. Such research is often multi-method and includes analysis of secondary (organisational) data, as well as primary data from questionnaire surveys, interviews and observations. Some of this research has been funded by government departments, sometimes by agencies and organisations running the programmes. There has been increasing pressure since the late 1990s in England to adopt a more rigorous approach to evaluation, within what has often been referred to as the ‘What Works’ debate (Davies et al, 2000). Organisational and monitoring data is very plentiful in England, with a whole range of data being available as annual statistical reports: for example, data on exclusion from school is reported by special educational need and ethnicity; data on vulnerable groups such as children in care is also monitored and compared with the general school population in annual reports (see www. csf. gov. uk for a wide range of national statistical reports, as well as funded research reports). A great deal of data is available both at the local authority level and at that of the individual school. For example, inspection reports for individual schools are available on the internet – such reports include observations and information about pupil behaviour. KEY RESEARCH FINDINGS ON T HE SCALE AND NATURE OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOUR There are various ways in which we might try to estimate how big an issue ‘deviant and violent’ behaviour is in schools, some of this behaviour could be viewed as criminal, some could be seen as anti-social whilst other behaviour may be simply part of the growing up process and ‘testing the boundaries’ with adults. It should also be emphasised that some of the behaviour that is viewed as problematic or ‘deviant’ in a school (such as ‘disruptive’ behaviour) may not be viewed in quite the same way in other settings. This section will review the evidence and indicators about a number of problem behaviours. Differences in opinion are evident, between parents and teachers, about the extent to which a particular behaviour constitutes a problem severe enough (or deviant enough) to warrant school exclusion (Hayden and Dunne, 2001). Low-level disruption to lessons and harassment of teachers are a major feature of surveys focussing on pupil behaviour from the perspective of International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 14 eachers; but it is evident that pupils are reported to be the most frequent victims of the more severe events physical violence, bullying and harassment in schools (DES/WO, 1989; Gill and Hearnshaw, 1997; Neill 2002; Wright and Keetley, 2003; Neill, 2008). Neill (2002, 2008) has conducted a national survey of NUT (National Union of Teachers) members twice in recent years. Interestingly, in terms of his use of terminology, the first survey referred to ‘unacceptable behaviour’, the second survey refers to ‘disruptive behaviour’. Neill (2008) concluded that the overall pattern of behaviour was similar. Some serious behaviours did show an increase though: such as, pushing and touching teachers; teachers witnessing a pupil in possession of a weapon in school. Furthermore the tendency was for experiences of these sorts of behaviours to have polarised between 2001 and 2008, with some teachers experiencing more severe problems in 2008. Table 1 shows that disruption to lessons and offensive language are frequent experiences for teachers, with over 60% of teachers experiencing this form of behaviour weekly. On the other hand pushing, touching and other unwanted physical contact was not experienced by two-thirds of teachers, within a year; although 11. 6% (in 2008) experienced this weekly. Deviance and violence in schools 15 Research into personal safety and ‘violence’ in schools (Gill and Hearnshaw, 1997) provides a picture of what a random sample of 3,986 schools experienced in one school year. This latter study was undertaken by criminologists and is one of the earliest examples of using the word ‘violence’ in relation to the behaviour of school pupils. Selected findings from this research are presented in Table 2. Martin et al (2008) found that over two-thirds (68. 3%) of teachers in a small scale survey had suffered some form of ‘physical assault’ at some point during their career. These ‘assaults’ included: being bitten, pushed, having chairs thrown at them, having doors slammed in their faces. Tables 1 and 2 (and the work of Martin et al, 2008) are examples of perceptions of the prevalence of certain deviant and violent behaviours from the teacher perspective. Pupil-based self-report surveys present another perspective. Blaya (2002) reports an overall victimisation rate of 55% of pupils in a year, in a sample of English schools (within a comparative study of French and English schools in socially deprived areas). Recent MORI (2008 a, 2008b) surveys show similarly high rates of victimisations of school age pupils in their nationally representative samples: 51% of mainstream pupils and 61% of excluded pupils in PRUs had been a victim of a crime in the last twelve months. Again there are problems of definition and comparability across such surveys. For example, ‘physical violence, pupil to pupil’ (as referred to in Table 2) may be one-off acts of aggression; they may on the other hand be more sustained and may then be seen as ‘bullying’. Research on bullying is highly pertinent to this review. Such research is very well established and defined in England. According to Smith (2002, 11718) and based on the pioneering work of Olweus (1993) ‘bullying is a subset of aggressive behaviours, characterised by repetition and power imbalance’. Bullying takes various forms – physical, verbal, social exclusion and indirect forms such as spreading rumours. Technology is helping to increase the forms International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 16 bullying might take: for example ‘cyber- bullying’, where young people use text messages from mobile phones and the internet to bully others (DCSF, 2007b). Attacks on young people are sometimes filmed, again using mobile phones; these events may then be posted on the internet (these events are known as ‘happy slapping’). The MORI (2008a, 2008b) surveys show the high prevalence of threatening messages sent by voicemail or text (22%) and ‘happy slapping’ (16%) by mainstream pupils. Table 3 illustrates how bullying surveys still produce fairly wide ranging estimates of prevalence, depending on the way questions are asked and the timescale involved. Although, overall, Smith and Myron-Wilson (1998, p. 406) estimate that: ‘around 1 in 5 children are involved in bully-victim problems’ in the UK, with similar incidences reported in other countries. Furniss (2000) discusses whether some forms of bullying should be considered to be a crime, rather than as a school disciplinary matter. Furniss considers the issue both from the standpoint of existing legal provisions as well as from the point of view of the level of protection afforded to children. She points out that assaults on teachers (though less frequent than pupil to pupil assaults) are often reported to the police; whereas in pupil to pupil cases, parents are expected to make the decision about whether or not to involve the police. Official data and research on exclusion from school tells us more about teacher and official responses to pupil behaviour. There has been a massive Deviance and violence in schools 17 amount of research on exclusion from school since the early 1990s, when government monitoring data became available (see for example Hayden, 1997; Parsons, 1999). When permanent exclusion figures are compared with surveys of teacher experience like the ones already noted, one might be surprised by the relatively small proportion of children who are permanently excluded, according to official statistics. Official data shows a reduction in the number of permanent exclusions from schools from the mid 1990s, to date. Although the official figures for permanent exclusion represent a very small proportion of the school population (the rate of permanent exclusion was 12 per 10,000 school population in England or 0. 12% in 2006-2007) there were many more fixed period exclusions. Fixed period exclusions (a matter of days usually) are now monitored annually and are much more numerous, as Table 4 illustrates. Existing evidence shows an increase in fixed period exclusions in the last few years. The most common single reason given for both permanent and fixed period exclusions is ‘persistent disruptive behaviour’ (31% of all permanent and 23% of fixed period exclusions). Physical assault against an adult accounted for 11. 3% of permanent and 4. 4% of fixed period exclusions. Physical assault against a pupil accounted for 15. 6% of permanent and 18. 6% of fixed period exclusions (DCSF, 2008c). The MORI (2006) surveys show that excluded children tend to have committed more criminal offences (and more serious offences) than children who have not been excluded from school. Official records of non-attendance involve a much bigger proportion of the school population. Some form of non-attendance represent a form of ‘deviance’ others may be a response to ‘violence. ’ The reasons for nonattendance are varied, but in some cases at least they represent disaffection or disinterest in schooling and in others avoidance of work pressures or bullying. Schools record ‘non-attendance’ which covers authorised absence (for example through sickness) and unauthorised absence (which may include a range of situations including truancy and being a young carer). Truancy’ suggests an active choice not to go to school and is thus a particular form of absence. Official data shows some improvement in ‘authorised’ absence (that is where parents/carers provide a written explanation for the absence). There is a worsening of the situation in relation to ‘unauthorised’ absence International Journal of Violence a nd School – 9 – September 2009 18 (where no explanation is provided) since the mid 1990s, despite the massive investment of resources in following up pupil absence in recent years. The most commonly quoted figure in government announcements is 50,000 school children truanting from school on any school day. Further, around 100,000 pupils were found to ‘disappear’ from the school roll between years 10 and 11 (between ages 15 and 16) in a one-year period of monitoring (Ofsted, 2003). That is these young people did not go back to school at some point between the ages of 14 and 16 years. There is a complex set of circumstances and reasons to explain why children are not in school or not benefiting from school. They all have their behavioural manifestations, although it tends to be the ‘acting out’ child that causes most consternation amongst teachers and parents because such behaviour demands attention. Criminologists have a slightly different focus and many of the surveys conducted are more explicitly looking at the prevalence of offending behaviour and victimisation of young people of school age. The connection between disruptive behaviour in schools and crime was highlighted in a seminal study by Graham (1988). In more recent years self-report surveys conducted with school pupils, have provided us with a picture of young people’s overall involvement in criminal activity (as in the Youth Justice Board, MORI, 2006, and Home Office surveys, such as Roe and Ashe, 2008, noted earlier). However, there is very little research explicitly focussing specifically on criminal acts committed on the school site, presumably because of the extreme sensitivity of such data and the difficulties of gaining access to undertake the research. One self-report study of a sample of pupils from 20 state secondary schools (3,103 respondents) in Cardiff (South Wales) found that a fifth (20. 3%) of all pupils reported involvement in one of five categories of offence on the school site in a one year period (Boxford, 2006). Deviance and violence in schools 19 Table 6 illustrates the differences in prevalence of offending behaviours between boys and girls. Interestingly, this study reports varying levels of impact on offending behaviour in relation to individual and lifestyle factors, with school context exercising a different level of relative protection in relation to these factors. The study confirms the importance of school climate (defined as encompassing school ethos, respect for authority and parental school interest) and adds to current understanding in the finding that pupil relations (defined as based on pupils’ social capital and school disorder) also have significant associations with pupils’ involvement in crime in schools. This sort of study is important in a number of ways: it illustrates the high level of offending that may be occurring in schools; it adds to the debate about the extent to which schools (in combination with other agencies) can address these issues and it reminds us that some of the acts dealt with as a within-school disciplinary issue could be treated as a criminal offence. Weapons-carrying and gang related behaviour has been a major feature of newspaper headlines in England in recent years. Table 7 illustrates the varying estimates obtained from research. Often surveys (such as CtC, 2005; MORI, 2006; Roe and Ashe, 2008) do not specify where the weapons-carrying has taken place. Both the MORI and International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 20 Home Office surveys, referred to earlier, include questions on weapons carrying, but do not ask where. Research focusing on the school site has measured prevalence in different ways: by school, by teacher experience and by pupil self-report. In a range of ways schools are also a place where adults, parents and former pupils may vent their anger and frustration. There are various ways that we can estimate the scale of this sort of problem. Sometimes people want to gain access to the school site for the purpose of vandalism, arson or theft of school property. Further, schools may also act as a site for ‘professional perpetrators’ to gain access to children (Sullivan and Beech 2002). Sullivan and Beech (2002) quote an estimate that about 400 teachers in the UK were suspended each year, following allegations of abusing pupils. The need for better security for schools, as well as screening of school staff, has been highlighted in the public imagination by the events referred to earlier in this article; such as ‘the Dunblane massacre’, ‘the Soham murders’ and other deaths and woundings. More common security problems for schools include the destruction or theft of property. These issues raise very different security problems for schools. Security firms offer schemes such as ‘School Watch’ over the summer holiday period. These firms tend to focus very much on property and damage from arson, vandalism and grafitti, rather than harm to people (see www. chubb. co. uk). The risk of arson and Deviance and violence in schools 21 vandalism is known to be higher in deprived urban areas, than elsewhere. However, whilst arson attacks against schools declined from over 1,100 in 1994 to just under 800 in 2000 there was an increase in the proportion of arson attacks occurring in school time. Around 250 of the 800 arson attacks in 2000 were during the school day when pupils are present (Arson Prevention Bureau, 2002). More generally schools in England now have tighter systems of control for people coming on to the school site and greater awareness of the need for careful background and police checks on adults in contact with children. The use of CCTV is commonplace as are keypad entry systems to buildings. POLICY AND PRACTICE DEVELOPMENT It is clear from the previous sections in this review that there is plenty of evidence about a range of problem behaviours presented on the school site. Current policy development for children in England emphasises schools as entral to addressing broader issues of wellbeing and safety, as well as academic and vocational education. The key overarching framework for all of this is referred to as Every Child Matters. GENERAL FRAMEWORK FOR CHILD WELFARE In 2001 a National Service Framework was announced for children’s services, to set in place standards against which all services would be inspected. Every Child Matters (DfES, 2003) sets the overall agenda for w hat agencies working with children are aiming to do. Within this framework schools are centre stage as the main institution in touch with all children. This framework exemplifies the themes that are central to social policy under New Labour: reducing poverty and social exclusion, developing the role of schools, inter-agency co-operation, early intervention and a strong emphasis on supporting the role of parents and carers. Five key outcomes for all children are listed at the beginning of Every Child Matters, these are: ? Being healthy – enjoying good physical and mental health and living a healthy lifestyle. ? Staying safe – being protected from harm and neglect and growing up able to look after themselves. Enjoying and achieving – getting the most out of life and developing broad skills for adulthood. ? Making a positive contribution – to the community and to society and not engaging in anti-social or offending behaviour. International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 22 ? Economic well-being – overcoming socio-economic disadvantages to achieve their full potential in life (Para 1. 3). The rest of the document focuses mainly on children most at risk, within a framework of universal services and the rights and responsibilities agenda. The thrust of the approach is around multi-disciplinary teams carrying out assessments under a common framework co-located around schools, Sure Start centres and primary care (community based health services). Schools are the focus as universal support centres and education is the organizing principle around which children’s services are organised. The Children Act 2004 provides the legislative spine for the wider strategy for improving children’s lives. The Act sets out to be enabling rather than prescriptive, so that local authorities have a considerable amount of flexibility in the way they implement its provisions. The overall aim is to encourage integrated planning, commissioning and delivery of services as well as improve multidisciplinary working, remove duplication, increase accountability and improve the coordination of individual and joint inspections in local authorities. Whilst the specifics of this vision are more complex, these ideals make sense at the strategic level. BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOLS Behaviour within schools is now largely seen as primarily related to the quality and appropriateness of teaching and learning, for the great majority of children. The Steer Committee (2005) also recognises that certain problematic aspects of pupil behaviour in schools are new: such as the general availability of technology like mobile phones, which are used by pupils in new forms of bullying and to record assaults and humiliations or to summon angry parents into the school at the behest of a pupil who has been disciplined. Furthermore the uncertainty about the meaning and application of in loco parentis4 is highlighted for contemporary teachers. It is noted by Steer (2005), as well as by the Elton Committee in 1989, that the legal judgements supporting this concept are very old and that the principle is based on an ancient doctrine of common law. This is seen as problematic in a context in which ‘the trend for parents to challenge schools at law, noted in the Elton Report, has continued and intensified‘(Steer, 2005, p. 80). At the school level, ‘school ethos’ was first recognised as an important influence on pupil behaviour and particularly delinquency in the seminal study by Rutter et al (1979). Although much of the focus is about ‘managing’ In loco parentis: this concept gives teachers the same authority over their pupils as parents have over their own children 4 Deviance and violence in schools 23 or ‘improving’ pupil behaviour, most of the strategies and training packages developed for schools require adults and institutions to include how they ‘manage’ or ‘improve’ behaviour, in essence how they build relationships and relate to pupils and colleagues. In short the issue of the ‘whole school climate’ and more specifically ‘school ethos’ is recognised as central to managing or improving behaviour in schools. At the same time, it is well recognised that issues may be complex at the level of the individual pupil: behaviour interpreted as disaffection may relate to a number of issues including child abuse and poor parenting; disrupted and stressful living circumstances; the disruptions associated with being ‘looked after’(being ‘in care’); relative poverty; special educational needs (or learning needs not met) and so on. However, disaffection, whatever the various causes is only one explanation for not attending school or behaving in a problematic way. Furthermore common issues relating to non-attendance are varied: such as, academic pressure and fear of failure; bullying; young carers; travelling families. Figure 2 illustrates that there is a wide range of responses to problem behaviour in schools in England. Whole school approaches recognise that school ethos and climate is crucial in promoting positive behaviour. The whole school approach is apparent in a raft of policies, agreements and strategies that are expected in all schools in England: such as behaviour management, anti-bullying, anti-harassment and equal opportunities policies; home-school agreements and particular strategies or approaches to realising these policies and agreements. The use of the curriculum to promote prosocial values, for example through citizenship education, and through teaching and learning strategies are yet another part of what all schools are expected to do. Individual pupils have ‘targets’ they are trying to achieve in relation to their behaviour (as well as academic learning) and some have individual plans for International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 24 behavioural and social reasons. In school and more intensive support is provided for individual pupils based on an assessment of their educational and social needs. Other provision is partly or wholly provided off the mainstream school site: these provisions focus on the most problematic or vulnerable children. We might conceptualise support for pupils in four tiers, with ‘Out of School provision’ being at the apex and ‘Whole School’ being at the base of a pyramid (in Figure 2). These provisions are in place with varying degrees of efficacy nationally. ‘In-school and more intensive support’; as well as ‘Combination and Re-integration Programmes’ are not readily available in some schools. In general, cities and the poorer areas of England have gained most additional resources under New Labour, albeit with strings attached. Deviance and violence in schools 25 Thus vulnerable children in more affluent areas have fewer options between being in and out of school. This raises important issues of equity in educational provision and support for all vulnerable children. SCHOOLS, SAFETY AND CRIME PREVENTION Schools are expected to consider risk and safety in a number of different ways: in terms of access to the school site from intruders, through vetting the suitability of their staff and in their everyday relations with children and adults who attend, work or visit the school. Schools were awarded ? 0 million in 2002-2003 to increase security measures through the Capital Modernisation Fund. Research intended to inform the development of policy and practice in this field was undertaken at the same time (Lloyd and Ching, 2003). Interestingly, this latter research identified external threats such as intruders, arson and burglary as greater concerns than internal threats from within the school community. The dynamic nature of school security is high lighted by this research, with pupil behaviour issues only emerging after the external threats already noted. Safer Schools programmes have developed since 2002. These programmes involve the police and other agencies working with schools, initially in high crime area. Safer Schools has now become a national programme, but varies a great deal in how it is run in individual schools. More recent concern about weapons carrying and gang culture entering the school environment has led to both legislative changes and new guidance to schools (DCSF, 2007a). The Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 introduced the power for members of school staff to search pupils for weapons if they have ‘reasonable grounds’ for suspecting that a pupil is carrying a weapon (with effect from October 1st 2007). Staff have the power to use ‘such force as is reasonable in the circumstances for exercising that power. ’ It should be emphasised that school staff have a power, not a duty in these respects. The police have grounds for searching a school for weapons if they ‘suspect’ that they may find weapons, prior to this Act they had to ‘believe’ this to be the case. Commenting on the guidance issued to schools on gangs, a spokesperson for the National Union of Teachers (NUT) said: ‘The Government’s guidance on gangs is a compilation of good sense and practical advice. Our evidence shows that there are a minority of schools which face increasing difficulties from weapons brought on to school premises. These schools need all the support they can get’ (NUT, 2008, para 1). Parents are also an important focus in government policy in relation to youth crime prevention. More coercive measures are being used towards International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 26 parents in a number of ways. The first parent was jailed in 2002 for failing to ensure that her teenage daughters attended school. In relation to behaviour in school as well as attendance, parenting contracts have been available to schools in England and Wales since early 2004 through the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003. The Steer report (2005) adds support to the use of parenting contracts as well as parenting orders in highlighting the need for a ‘more immediate and consistent response to schools dealing with violent or abusive parents’ (p. 95). Schools have been able to apply directly to the courts for parenting orders since 2007. EFFECTIVE RESPONSES TO PROBLEM BEHAVIOUR Certain basic principles and indicators of effective ways of responding to children who present problem behaviour are well known, if highly debated, in terms of how these principles are put into practice. For example, it is well established that early behavioural problems in pre-school children are indicative of the likelihood of developing more problematic and entrenched difficulties later in life. The costs of intervening early are known to outweigh those of responding later (Sutton et al, 2004). These are the kinds of principles that have informed the development of Sure Start and now Children’s Centres. At the same time it is recognised that there can be dangers in intervening in children’s lives too early. For example, DSRU (2004) cautions against ‘net-widening’, or drawing families into services when they could sort things out for themselves. Evidence about the kinds of programme that produce positive effects on children’s behaviour are well known by policy makers in England: for example, early education programmes in the United States such as High/Scope and Head Start have been well evaluated and demonstrate clear gains for disadvantaged children. Structured parenting programmes, such as that developed by Webster-Stratton, have also been found to be effective in improving parenting skills and in turn children’s behaviour. Cognitive behavioural methods have generally been shown to be effective in a wide range of circumstances (Falshaw et al, 2003). Overall, these programmes have been influential in England (Hayden, 2007). However, most evaluations of interventions for children presenting problem behaviour in England are relatively small scale and do not meet the scientific criteria required by ‘what works’ enthusiasts5. Most are too shortterm to follow through the longer-term impact (if any) of an intervention. It See for example, Wilson and Lipsey’s (2006) meta-analysis of 219 school–based violence prevention programs which shows that universal programmes were generally effective in reducing the more common types of pupil behaviours, and especially in relation to ‘high risk’ pupils. 5 Deviance and violence in schools 27 is impossible to conclude in some instances whether or not any improvements ndicated may simply be due to more resources and attention paid to an issue. Nevertheless, there are some useful advisory materials, produced for decision-makers, that provide a gateway to the very numerous sources of expertise and different approaches to combating violence and aggression in schools (see for example Gittins, 2005). Many new initiatives working with schools are based on the principle of sustainability. That is, it is assumed that after a period of funding an initiative the lessons learned can become part of mainstream professional practice. The expectation is that mainstream practice can either change or accommodate the work (vis-a-vis other pressures and that the new ways of working are compatible with performance management targets – the latter being a very strong feature of the public sector in England). Furthermore it is assumed that staff are willing and able to change their practice. This may well be the case in behaviour management and parenting programmes (as a particular way of doing something that a practitioner already has to do); but some initiatives set out to add value to existing services through the provision of more individual or small group opportunities for children. Furthermore, projects aimed at the prevention end of the continuum may well uncover more (unmet) need for services (DSRU, 2004, p. 26). The possibility that some ‘preventative’ services might actually uncover unmet need is a particularly pertinent issue to consider in relation to the focus of this review. Behaviour problems’, ‘special educational need’ and ‘mental health issues’ can each be seen as on a continuum and at least one in five children will experience one or more of these problems in the course of growing up. Behaviours may present as ‘deviant’ or ‘violent’ but the underlying causes may be any one (or a co mbination) of these latter issues. However, levels of need are very unevenly spread in communities, with higher levels of need being apparent in poorer areas. The potential scale of the need for more help, particularly in poorer areas, alongside the widespread level of anxiety and concern, from parents, politicians and the media, means that additional support for schools makes sense as a response to broader concerns about anti-social and criminal behaviour from young people. There is now much wider recognition of the need to advise and support parents in general on how to respond to and manage their children’s behaviour. Indeed there have been a number of television series focussed on the issue in recent years. Media images of out of control and anti-social ‘youths’ and stories about very disruptive and aggressive behaviour in schools can be influential in constructing popular perceptions and explanations of the issues to be addressed. It is common for various organisations, interest groups and the media to call for some issue to do with children’s behaviour to International Journal of Violence and School – 9 – September 2009 28 be addressed by ‘parenting programmes’ and initiatives in schools. Yet the behavioural expectations that are presented as the norm are at odds with subcultural differences and realities; this means that some schools may be at odds with the dominant norms of the communities they serve. Schools in England are now viewed as the universal service for all children and as a key service around which other children’s services might be colocated and planned. It is a vision with a great deal to commend it; although it is a vision that may take time to realise. Some key areas of instability are apparent in this vision. Quite apart from workload concerns, there are other practical problems such as space, particularly in some inner city primary schools. Further, the availability of appropriately trained and skilled personnel varies by area – specifically the evidence of teachers leaving the profession and of the drift of those who move jobs from the schools in the most adverse circumstances, to those that are easier places to work (Smithers and Robinson, 2005). Simply, schools that need staff most have difficulties in recruitment. Inclusive schools are self evidently better for individual children, as well as the communities they serve. However, it is plain that the ability of schools to be inclusive varies. Indeed the ongoing concern about behaviour in schools is evidence of the problems of coping with the ‘core business’ that already exist (Hayden, 2007). CONCLUSIONS Research evidence and monitoring data on the nature and prevalence of ‘deviance’ and ‘violence’ in schools is plentiful in England. In particular there are a plethora of self-report surveys from school pupils. Overall the evidence suggests that some forms of behaviour are very common, particularly disruptive behaviour, offensive language, bullying and other forms of aggression. Behaviour that would warrant the label ‘violent’ in England is less common, but there are indications of an increase in the more extreme behaviours and particularly in individual schools, many of which are in poorer socio-economic circumstances. A great deal of additional resources have gone into schools since New Labour came into power in 1997 and there has been a reduction in official records of permanent exclusion, as well as authorised absence, more training opportunities and support in behaviour management for teachers and so on. However, a major task remains; a task that is most strongly focused in inner cities and areas of social housing. The increasing socio-economic disparities in England during this same time period, as well as increasing parental choice over access to state schools has left some schools behind. In such schools the connection between problem behaviour and an environment in which it is difficult for teachers to teach and pupils to learn is all too apparent. Deviance and violence in schools 29 A key gap in contemporary school-based research in England is in the more time-consuming and in-depth ethnographic studies that focus on the dynamics of problem behaviour in schools in the most difficult circumstances. We need a more realistic assessment of how to educate the most problematic young people in a way that gives them the best opportunity for a positive future, alongside addressing the needs of the other young people with whom they share their schooling.